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What does this actually mean?Explanation 18

Creatine: muscle fuel, a steroid, or something else?

What is creatine, and does a loading phase or a different form matter?

21 sources · Latest source check 2026-10-20 UTC
On this page

Creatine is a compound the body makes and obtains from some foods. Muscles use it in rapid energy supply. Creatine monohydrate is the most studied supplement form.[1]

What does this actually mean?

What creatine actually is

Creatine is a compound the body makes and stores mainly in muscle; food also supplies it. Its phosphate-containing form helps quickly regenerate ATP, the immediate fuel used by cells. It is not testosterone, an anabolic steroid or a stimulant. A creatine scoop and an energy drink can therefore have very different purposes even when both appear in the gym aisle.[19]

Where the strongest practical case sits

Creatine has its clearest exercise role in repeated short, high-intensity efforts, alongside training. Think repeated hard sets or sprints, rather than an instant sensation of energy. Benefits depend on the outcome and program. More research on women and older adults broadens the picture, but does not make every claim about every age group equally established.[17][9]

Why the scale can move first

Creatine can alter water held in muscle. Early changes in body weight or lean-mass readings therefore are not a direct count of new muscle fibers. Longer-term strength and training outcomes are separate measurements. “Lean mass” includes water and other nonfat tissue, so a striking before-and-after scan needs a timeframe and a description of what was actually measured.[18]

The similar-sounding blood marker

Creatinine is a breakdown product used in kidney assessment; it is not another spelling of creatine. Supplement use can affect interpretation of creatinine-based results. A changed result needs clinical context, rather than an automatic claim of injury or an automatic dismissal. Tell the clinician interpreting your tests about supplements and the timing of their use.[19]

What remains less settled

Brain-health research tests specific tasks, populations and circumstances. It should not be translated into “prevents dementia” or “makes everyone sharper.” Reviews can also reuse the same small trials, so several favorable summaries are not necessarily several independent replications. Corrections, study selection and whether a result survives sensitivity checks matter when comparing headlines.[2][5]

What to check when shopping

Check whether the ingredient is creatine monohydrate, how many grams the listed serving supplies and whether the product includes caffeine or other ingredients. The most studied formulation does not need to feel stimulating to be active. A certificate can address specified quality tests, while a premium name or elaborate blend needs its own comparative evidence. The label cannot determine individual suitability.[17]

Creatine, creatinine, and supplement forms

Creatine supports rapid ATP regeneration through phosphocreatine. Creatinine is its breakdown product removed by the kidneys. They are different substances. Monohydrate is the main studied supplement form; more expensive variants have not demonstrated superior effects.[6]

What does a studied protocol mean?

The ISSN position paper describes protocols with a brief loading phase followed by maintenance, and slower approaches without loading. These are ways of raising muscle creatine stores in studies, not a personalized schedule. Ingredient findings also do not establish the safety or effectiveness of a multi-ingredient pre-workout. Examples include 20 g/day divided across four servings for 5–7 days, then 3–5 g/day; another studied approach used 3 g/day for 28 days.[8]

An increase in measured lean mass is not automatically new muscle tissue

A 2025 trial assigned 63 adults to creatine monohydrate or an unsupplemented control. After a seven-day period without training, DXA-measured lean mass rose more in the creatine group. During the subsequent 12-week resistance program, additional lean-mass growth did not clearly differ between groups.[10]

DXA estimates can be influenced by hydration and other measurement conditions. The investigators did not directly measure the proposed water mechanism, and there was no placebo control. The result raises a measurement question; it does not prove that every creatine-associated gain is water or that strength cannot improve.[10]

Strength, lean mass and fat mass need separate outcome summaries

A review published online in September 2026 included 63 studies and 1,489 participants. It reported pooled benefits for upper/lower-body strength and lean mass with creatine plus resistance training. Fat mass did not clearly change, even though body-fat percentage fell slightly. A percentage can change when the denominator changes.[11]

The authors noted uneven age subgroups and incompletely reported nutrition and training backgrounds. These pooled outcomes do not supply one dose for everyone, and review overlap has not been independently reconciled here. One selected lean-mass trial and a broader strength synthesis should not be treated as contradictory answers to an identical question.[11]

Evidence & uncertainty

Repeated high-intensity exercise, cognition, and kidney measurements are separate evidence questions. Kidney findings depend on how filtration is measured; cognitive benefits remain disputed. This page preserves those distinctions rather than adopting a universal benefit or safety verdict.[7][4][3]

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending

Published questions

What exercise benefits does creatine have?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

The NIH summary supports short, repeated high-intensity efforts, including strength training. It does not show the same value for endurance exercise.[1]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Is creatine a proven brain booster?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

A broad benefit is not established. A positive memory review faces a published analysis critique, and EFSA found the submitted cognitive health claim unsubstantiated.[2][3][4]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Does creatine cause kidney damage?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Trials do not show a consistent injury signal, but creatinine-based measurements can change. Evidence does not establish safety for every kidney condition or duration.[7]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Can creatine affect a creatinine blood test?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Yes. Creatine can change creatinine-based measurements. Method and clinical context matter.[7]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Is an expensive form of creatine proven better than monohydrate?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

More expensive alternatives have not demonstrated superior effects in the NIH explanation. Price does not replace a direct comparison.[6]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Is a creatine loading phase required in every studied protocol?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

No. ISSN describes both loading and slower protocols without loading. This page does not select one for an individual.[8]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Why might creatine change a creatinine blood result without proving kidney damage?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Creatinine is produced from creatine metabolism. Supplementation can raise this marker and make creatinine-based filtration estimates appear lower without the same change in directly measured filtration. A trial supports that distinction in its studied participants, not universal safety. Individual results need interpretation with other kidney tests and clinical context.[6][7]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Who has been studied beyond male gym users?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Creatine benefits repeated high-intensity efforts, such as sprinting and weightlifting. Women have been studied, including pre- and postmenopausal groups, but female evidence has been less extensive. Selected older-adult research combines creatine with resistance training; outcomes and protocols vary. Exercise findings do not establish a general cognitive benefit or equal effects in every age, sex or medical condition.[1][8][9][4]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Does a DXA lean-mass increase prove an equal gain in new muscle tissue?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Hydration and measurement conditions can influence lean-mass estimates; the measured endpoint needs interpretation.[10]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Does the wash-in trial establish that creatine never improves strength?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

It studied lean-mass measurements in a specific program, not every strength outcome or population.[10]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Can body-fat percentage fall without a clear fall in fat mass?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Yes. A change in total or lean mass can change the percentage denominator.[11]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Does a pooled creatine-training benefit identify the best personal dose?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Different study conditions and incompletely reported backgrounds limit a universal dose inference.[11]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

What is creatine, and does a loading phase or a different form matter?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

Creatine supports rapid energy recycling. Loading speeds store increases; studied slower approaches also exist. Monohydrate has the most research; premium forms need demonstrated advantages.[19][17]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Should creatine give me an immediate caffeine-like buzz?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

That is not how its main exercise role works. Creatine supports repeated high-intensity efforts through muscle energy stores. Feeling stimulated may instead reflect caffeine or another ingredient in a combined product; the sensation is not a test of creatine effectiveness.[19]

Evidence behind this answer

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Is creatine known to cause hair loss?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

The selected direct trial found no difference in measured hair outcomes or DHT over 12 weeks in young trained men. That bounded result does not rule out every long-term effect or explain an individual’s hair change.[20]

Evidence behind this answer
  • Does creatine cause hair loss? A 12-week randomized controlled trial

    original randomized trial · 2025
    Selected original full-text passages inspected in PMC; not independently appraised or a long-term safety synthesis. · Abstract; Participants; Results including missing hair assessment; limitations; acknowledgments, funding and disclosures

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Does creatine necessarily cause dehydration during hot exercise?

Selected-source overview · Independent review pending. Read the evidence context.

No such effect was found in a small controlled trial of active young men. Its short protocol is not a guarantee for all users or a reason to ignore heat precautions and an appropriate fluid plan.[21]

Evidence behind this answer
  • Creatine use and exercise heat tolerance in dehydrated men

    original randomized crossover trial · 2006
    Original abstract inspected; repeated PMC body requests encountered a challenge. · Abstract: 12 participants, one-week exposure, controlled dehydration/heat protocol, hydration and thermoregulatory outcomes

This answer summarizes selected sources. An independent appraisal of the complete evidence has not been completed.

Selected-study outcomes

These views show selected findings from abstracts, publication records or selected full-text passages. Access is stated for each record. Complete synthesis and independent appraisal remain pending.

Selected study · review incomplete

Creatine cognition in vegetarians

Both cognitive tests improved in this small crossover study.[12]

Task effects are not prevention of dementia; selected vegetarians limit applicability.

Population
45 young vegetarian adults
Intervention/exposure
Creatine monohydrate 5 g/day
Comparison
Placebo
Follow-up
6 weeks/condition
Setting
Setting not extracted
Backward digit span and Raven matrices
MeasureReported result
Between-condition differenceNot extracted test-score units; CI not extracted; p <0.0001
missing estimate reasonMagnitude/interval not reported in retrieved abstract.

Harms: Not extracted.

Stated population/comparison only.

Extraction details

Access: Indexed primary abstract

Funding: Not extracted.

Conflicts: Not extracted.

Query: site:pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14561278 "significant"

Certainty ungraded. Appraisal and qualified review pending.

Selected study · review incomplete

Creatine cognition replication

The estimated cognitive benefit was small and uncertain.[13]

No extra vegetarian benefit; repeated testing and crossover carryover need appraisal.

Population
123 adults; vegetarians and omnivores
Intervention/exposure
Creatine monohydrate 5 g/day
Comparison
Maltodextrin placebo
Follow-up
6 weeks/condition
Setting
Germany; laboratory/online
Backward digit span
MeasureReported result
Partial η²0.029; CI not extracted; p 0.064
Additional primary test: Raven matricesPartial η²: 0.008; CI not extracted; p 0.327
missing interval reasonInterval not extracted for this effect measure.

Harms: Reported side effects were more common: RR 4.25; P=.002.

Stated population/comparison only.

Extraction details

Access: Publisher abstract and selected methods/results

Funding: Not extracted.

Conflicts: Authors declared no competing interests.

Query: "The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance" "123"

Certainty ungraded. Appraisal and qualified review pending.

Selected study · review incomplete

Measured kidney function and creatine

No clear between-group measured-GFR difference was detected.[14]

Wide interval and short follow-up cannot establish safety in kidney disease.

Population
Adults with type 2 diabetes; sample size not extracted
Intervention/exposure
Creatine plus exercise; dose not extracted
Comparison
Placebo plus exercise
Follow-up
12 weeks
Setting
Brazil
Measured glomerular filtration
MeasureReported result
Estimated mean difference-0.3 mL/min/1.73m²; 95% CI -24.9–24.2; p 0.58
SampleNot extracted
intervention pre90.4 mL/min/1.73m²
intervention post96.1 mL/min/1.73m²
comparator pre97.9 mL/min/1.73m²
comparator post96.4 mL/min/1.73m²
missing sample size reasonNot available in accessed abstract.

Harms: Not extracted.

Stated population/comparison only.

Extraction details

Access: Publisher abstract; full text paywalled

Funding: CNPq support for named investigators

Conflicts: Authors declared no conflict.

Query: "Creatine supplementation does not impair kidney function" "GFR"

Certainty ungraded. Appraisal and qualified review pending.

Selected study · review incomplete

Creatine and postmenopausal bone

The primary bone-density outcome did not improve versus placebo.[15]

Bone geometry and density are distinct; fracture prevention was not established.

Population
237 postmenopausal women; mean age 59
Intervention/exposure
Creatine 0.14 g/kg/day plus training/walking
Comparison
Placebo plus training/walking
Follow-up
2 years
Setting
Setting not extracted
Femoral-neck bone mineral density
MeasureReported result
Between-group differenceNot extracted g/cm²; CI not extracted
intervention pre0.725 g/cm²
intervention post0.712 g/cm²
comparator pre0.721 g/cm²
comparator post0.706 g/cm²
missing estimate reasonAdjusted between-group estimate/interval not extracted.

Harms: Not extracted.

Stated population/comparison only.

Extraction details

Access: Indexed primary abstract

Funding: Not extracted.

Conflicts: Not extracted.

Preparation: form: creatine; form detail: Chemical form not extracted; dose: 0.14; unit: g/kg/day

Query: site:pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov creatine older women 2 year randomized bone 2023 237

Certainty ungraded. Appraisal and qualified review pending.

Selected study · review incomplete

Creatine during acute sleep loss

Several task performances deteriorated less with creatine.[16]

Small acute experiment; task-specific effects do not justify replacing sleep or driving impaired.

Population
29 healthy participants
Intervention/exposure
Single creatine monohydrate dose 0.2 g/kg
Comparison
Placebo
Follow-up
21 hours; tests 3–7.5 hours after dose
Setting
Experimental sleep loss
Cognitive tasks during sleep deprivation
MeasureReported result
Between-condition differenceNot extracted task-specific units; CI not extracted
missing estimate reasonComparable task effect and confidence interval not extracted.

Harms: Not extracted.

Stated population/comparison only.

Extraction details

Access: Indexed primary abstract plus investigators’ institutional summary; publisher blocked

Funding: Not extracted.

Conflicts: Not extracted.

Query: "42075005" "Twenty-nine" "placebo"

Certainty ungraded. Appraisal and qualified review pending.

Exercise performance

NIH describes benefits for short repeated efforts, such as lifting or sprinting; endurance benefits are less clear.[1]

Water retention and weight gain occur. Evidence in healthy adults does not establish suitability for every medical condition.[1]

Does it damage kidneys?

A 2026 review of 26 randomized studies found higher creatinine and lower creatinine-based filtration estimates, but no clear difference in Cr-EDTA-measured filtration or other markers. The authors considered altered creatinine metabolism likely; creatinine results need context rather than establishing kidney injury.[7]

Mixed populations, protocols, and durations limit inference. These findings do not clear creatine for every kidney condition or explain one person’s test. The Atlas has not re-analyzed the trials.[7]

A short trial directly measured hair outcomes

A 2025 placebo-controlled study recruited 45 resistance-trained men aged 18–40; 38 completed follow-up, with hair data available for 37. After 12 weeks, it detected no between-group difference in DHT or measured hair outcomes. This does not establish lifetime absence of risk or the same findings in women, older adults or people with existing hair disorders. Some authors disclosed supplement-industry advisory or consulting relationships.[20]

Water retention is not proof that exercise will cause dehydration

In a randomized crossover experiment, 12 active young men used creatine monohydrate or placebo for one week before controlled dehydration and exercise in heat. Supplementation did not worsen hydration status, temperature regulation or heat-symptom scores in that protocol. This small, short laboratory study cannot certify safety for every medical condition, climate or prolonged exposure. It also does not establish a fluid-replacement prescription or make dehydration desirable.[21]

Cognition: an active disagreement

A 2024 review of 16 trials reported a pooled memory benefit and rated its memory evidence moderate certainty. That is the authors’ rating, rather than an independent Atlas assessment.[2]

A 2026 commentary argued that multiple correlated tests from the same participants had been treated as independent observations, inflating apparent precision. It called for a re-analysis. This is a methodological critique, not a new randomized trial.[3]

EFSA’s 2024 health-claim evaluation found that the submitted evidence did not establish the claimed improvement in cognitive function. A 2025 correction to the positive review clarified attention and processing-speed scores versus timing measures; it did not resolve the separate independence critique.[4][5]

How to read the disagreement

Muscle and cognition claims differ. Regulatory evaluation, pooled tests, and methodological criticism are distinct inputs; this overview has not repeated the analysis.[1][4][3]

References

  1. Dietary supplements for exercise and athletic performance: consumer fact sheet

    Agency fact sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · Content/publication date: not stated
    Accessed: 2026-10-05 UTC · official page
    Cited sections: Cited explanatory page or publication record

  2. The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

    Systematic review and meta analysis

    Xu C; Bi S; Zhang W; Luo L · Content/publication date: 2024
    Accessed: 2026-10-05 UTC · full publisher article
    Cited sections: Cited explanatory page or publication record

    Read with the linked 2025 correction and 2026 methodological commentary. The authors’ certainty rating is not independently adopted.

  3. Commentary: The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

    Methodological commentary

    Citherlet T · Content/publication date: 2026
    Accessed: 2026-10-05 UTC · full publisher article
    Cited sections: Cited explanatory page or publication record

    Published 10 April 2026. No independent re-analysis performed for the Atlas.

  4. Creatine and improvement in cognitive function: evaluation of a health claim

    Regulatory scientific opinion

    EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens · Content/publication date: 2024
    Accessed: 2026-10-05 UTC · abstract
    Cited sections: Abstract

  5. Corrigendum: The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults

    Published correction

    Xu C; Bi S; Zhang W; Luo L · Content/publication date: 2025
    Accessed: 2026-10-05 UTC · full publisher correction
    Cited sections: Cited explanatory page or publication record

  6. Dietary Supplements for Exercise and Athletic Performance: Creatine

    Agency explanation

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · Content/publication date: not stated
    Accessed: 2026-10-06 UTC · Selected official page sections
    Cited sections: Creatine: mechanism, forms, studied loading and maintenance protocols

  7. Impact of creatine supplementation on kidney health: a systematic review and meta-analysis

    Systematic review and meta analysis

    Almeida A de S and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2026-07-27
    Accessed: 2026-10-06 UTC · Publisher abstract and selected results/conclusion sections
    Cited sections: Abstract: creatinine-based GFR versus Cr-EDTA; limitations

    No independent re-analysis; creatinine-related biomarkers must not be equated with injury.

  8. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation

    Professional position statement

    Kreider RB and colleagues; ISSN · Content/publication date: 2017
    Accessed: 2026-10-06 UTC · Selected full-text sections
    Cited sections: Metabolic role; supplementation protocols; forms; disclosures

    Professional position statement; author relationships with supplement companies disclosed. No independent clinical safety appraisal.

  9. Creatine Supplementation in Women's Health: A Lifespan Perspective

    Narrative review

    Smith-Ryan et al. · Content/publication date: 2021
    Accessed: 2026-10-06 UTC · PubMed abstract, bibliographic record and conflict statement
    Cited sections: Female evidence is understudied; pre/postmenopausal performance; conflict statement

    Narrative review, not a pooled estimate of equal effects in all women. Smith-Ryan and Candow report scientific advisory roles with creatine manufacturer Alzchem; company had no role in content/writing. PMC/publisher full-text access was blocked during this pass. A newer May 2026 postmenopausal review was discovered, but its full abstract could not be retrieved reliably; no numerical effects from it are asserted.

  10. The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Lean Body Mass with and Without Resistance Training

    Randomized trial

    Desai I and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2025
    Accessed: 2026-10-08 UTC · Original indexed abstract and selected original full-text methods/limitation passages inspected; direct PubMed retrieval unavailable
    Cited sections: Abstract and selected original methods/limitations: seven-day wash-in, DXA, controls and hydration

    Supplement sponsorship disclosed. Water mechanism not directly established; higher-dose suggestion is not adopted.

  11. Resistance training combined with creatine supplementation: a three-level meta-analysis of multidimensional outcomes from strength enhancement to body composition remodeling

    Systematic review and meta analysis

    Hai Wang, Hao Wang, Xianyang Xin and Zheng Yi · Content/publication date: 2026
    Accessed: 2026-10-08 UTC · Original indexed bibliographic record and abstract inspected
    Cited sections: Original indexed abstract: 63 studies, separate outcomes and moderator limitations

    Online 21 September 2026; indexed collection date 31 December 2026. Search through 21 April 2025. No independent reanalysis or overlap check.

  12. Creatine cognition in vegetarians

    Controlled crossover trial

    Rae C and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2003
    Accessed: 2026-10-14 UTC · Indexed primary abstract
    Cited sections: Abstract

    Extraction; independent review pending.

  13. Creatine cognition replication

    Randomized controlled trial

    Sandkühler JF and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2023
    Accessed: 2026-10-14 UTC · Publisher abstract and selected methods/results
    Cited sections: Abstract; Methods: Interventions; Results

    Extraction; independent review pending.

  14. Measured kidney function and creatine

    Randomized controlled trial

    Gualano B and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2011
    Accessed: 2026-10-14 UTC · Publisher abstract; full text paywalled
    Cited sections: Abstract: 51Cr-EDTA clearance

    Extraction; independent review pending.

  15. Creatine and postmenopausal bone

    Randomized controlled trial

    Chilibeck PD and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2023
    Accessed: 2026-10-14 UTC · Indexed primary abstract
    Cited sections: Abstract: Methods/Results

    Extraction; independent review pending.

  16. Creatine during acute sleep loss

    Placebo controlled experimental study

    Gordji-Nejad A and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2026
    Accessed: 2026-10-14 UTC · Indexed primary abstract plus investigators’ institutional summary; publisher blocked
    Cited sections: Abstract: Methods; institutional Results summary

    Extraction; independent review pending.

  17. Part II. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?

    Narrative review

    Original publication authors · Content/publication date: 2025
    Accessed: 2026-10-15 UTC · Original indexed abstract inspected; full text not retrieved
    Cited sections: Abstract and indexed selected introduction on monohydrate and exercise performance

    Selected evidence; outcome and population boundaries apply.

  18. Creatine Supplementation Increases Total Body Water Without Altering Fluid Distribution

    Original trial

    Original publication authors · Content/publication date: 2003
    Accessed: 2026-10-15 UTC · Original indexed abstract inspected; full text not retrieved
    Cited sections: Original abstract: body water and body mass measurements

    Selected evidence; outcome and population boundaries apply.

  19. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?

    Narrative review

    Original publication authors · Content/publication date: 2021
    Accessed: 2026-10-15 UTC · Primary full-text indexed selected passages inspected; direct PMC opening met a browser challenge
    Cited sections: Indexed sections on ATP, steroids, water retention, creatinine and formulations

    Selected evidence; outcome and population boundaries apply.

  20. Does creatine cause hair loss? A 12-week randomized controlled trial

    Original randomized trial

    Lak M and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2025
    Accessed: 2026-10-20 UTC · Selected original full-text passages inspected in PMC; not independently appraised or a long-term safety synthesis.
    Cited sections: Abstract; Participants; Results including missing hair assessment; limitations; acknowledgments, funding and disclosures

    Short male-only study; industry relationships are disclosed.

  21. Creatine use and exercise heat tolerance in dehydrated men

    Original randomized crossover trial

    Watson G and colleagues · Content/publication date: 2006
    Accessed: 2026-10-20 UTC · Original abstract inspected; repeated PMC body requests encountered a challenge.
    Cited sections: Abstract: 12 participants, one-week exposure, controlled dehydration/heat protocol, hydration and thermoregulatory outcomes

    Small short-term laboratory comparison; not universal heat clearance.

Scope & review

Population
Exercise-study populations; cognition populations differ
Exposure or intervention
Creatine supplementation
Comparison
Controls in reviews; dependent data critique documented
Outcomes
Repeated high-intensity performance, disputed cognition claims, and measurement-specific kidney outcomes; not individualized renal clearance
Timeframe
Study durations vary
Jurisdiction
Published reviews, correction and later critique

Selected-source educational explanation. Edition 3.18 adds scoped explanations and records source-specific access or recheck dates. Older references retain their own dates. No exhaustive search, independent systematic synthesis, formal Atlas grade or qualified clinical review has been completed.

Sources checked on their individual access dates. Selected sources were checked; ongoing surveillance and qualified review have separate statuses on the coverage page.

Revision history
  • 2026-10-05 UTC: Initial selected-source overview.
  • 2026-10-06 UTC: Scope and source locators added; repetitive prose condensed. Original source-check date retained; no new claim review.
  • 2026-10-06 UTC: Unverifiable generated search-query labels replaced with retained reference URLs; source-check date and clinical prose preserved.
  • 2026-10-06 UTC: Added creatine-versus-creatinine definitions, supplement-form comparisons, studied protocol context, and measurement-specific kidney evidence with four new questions.
  • 2026-10-06 UTC: Added related reading and made remaining editorial scope explicit in edition 3.1; source-access dates retained.
  • 2026-10-08 UTC: Deepened specific reader explanations and added or rechecked the recorded sources; other earlier content retained.
  • 2026-10-15 UTC: Added the plain-English series explanation with definitions, distinctions, practical questions and selected primary sources; qualified review remains pending.
  • 2026-10-20 UTC: Selected depth1 source-based additions appended; earlier prose, IDs and source access dates retained. Qualified review remains pending.

What this article still leaves open

  • Independent re-analysis of the disputed cognition meta-analysis
  • Long-duration renal outcomes and condition-specific eligibility
  • Product-specific contamination and combined-ingredient safety
  • Direct muscle/water measurement, adequately blinded replication, full review-overlap mapping and functional outcomes remain necessary.
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